Modernism Essay
This essay was written in my 2nd year of college; It looks at how far modernist texts present a the view of the world.
The three texts used are:
T.S Eliot - The Wasteland and other poems
Virginia Woof - Mrs Dalloway
Samuel Beckett - Waiting for Godot
Enjoy.
'Modernist texts present a view of the world as fragmented and complex’
How far does your interpretation of your three texts support this judgement?
‘’Any poet, if he is to survive beyond his 25th year, must alter; he must seek new literary influences; he will have different emotions to express.’’ [1] T.S Eliot born September 26, 1888 was considered to be one of the most important poets of the 20th century; he spent his life as a Poet, Playwright and literary critic and is responsible for having produced some of the most influential pieces of poetry known within the modernist movement, A movement which aimed to move away from romanticism, along with the ideological views of the world. The publication of T.S Eliot’s poem ‘The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock’[2] in 1915 saw the introduction of a new technique enter the works of Literature known as the ‘Stream of consciousness’, a literary style made famous during the 1920’s which provided fragmentation within those chosen Poems. Mrs Dalloway[3] written by modernist writer Virginia Woolf was the second novel alongside James Joyce’s ‘Ulysses’[4] to be recognized utilizing the use of this literary technique; in which it closely tracks the momentary thoughts of both Clarissa Dalloway and Septimus, the two main protagonists in the novel. The novel itself uses a combination of fragmented indirect and direct speech which plays an active role in formulating the flow of dialogue within the novel and as such creates a complex world, within a fragmented story.
The works of both Eliot and Woolf allowed for their modernist texts to reject the objective view inlayed in the works of its Victorian predecessors and move away from this idea of subjectivism. However the period was short lived, and eventually made way for post modernism, Samuel Beckett’s ‘Waiting for Godot’ [5], Written in 1948 having been entitled "the most significant English language play of the 20th century" [6] Beckett’s work moved away from the literary techniques of the modernist authors, and whilst some features were retained he evidently focused more on the use of language and structure as a way of distinguishing his work from those that preceded him.
The modernist style of both Eliot and Woolf similarly represent the social rebellion that existed just after World War I and as such illuminate this echoing feeling of war within their literary works, by rejecting romance and harmony, they portrayed this idea of a fragmentised society broken down by the effects of the war.
Similarly, ‘Waiting for Godot’ also echoes the feeling of war, having been written just after the end of World War II. It too projects the reminders of the war onto the narrative, keeping with the noted style of the post modernist writers whilst furthering the ability to diverge into areas previously unseen within Literature.
As a whole all three texts present the modernist view of a broken society through different forms. In particular Eliot portrays this idea of a fragmented society through a number of his poems. Works such as ‘Rhapsody on a windy night’[7] and ‘Preludes’[8] are clear examples of this, ‘Rhapsody’ illuminates this idea of a fragmented society, a society falling apart due to the changes that are occurring within it. ‘An old crab with barnacles on his back, Gripped the end of a stick which I held him’[9] portrays this image of society being old, it is crumbling away, yet it is still trying to hold on to itself with little hope. It also conveys this idea of loneliness; something that appears numerous times throughout his works. ‘Dissolve the floors of the memory’[10] and ‘A lonely cab-horse steams and stamps’[11] taken from ‘Preludes’ portrays this idea of our memories being forgotten, dissolved along with the remoteness of the animal underlines this echoing feeling of loneliness and isolation within his poetry.
Similarly this idea of a fragmented society and loneliness is something that presents itself within Beckett’s ‘Waiting for Godot’. Lucky’s speech which takes place towards the end of Act 1, is considered to be one the most memorable and famous elements of the play. As such the speech is a clear example of the use of the modernist technique the ‘stream of consciousness in action. Over the years there have been many debates as to what Beckett was trying to explore within Lucky’s speech and as such there has often been confusion as to what exactly Lucky was referring too.
LUCKY: ‘Time will tell... plunged in torment plunged in fire result of labours left unfinished to waste and pine to shrink and dwindle labours lost shrink and waste unfinished.’[12]
Notably there are links between Lucky speech and that of T.S Eliot’s ‘The Waste land: III The fire Sermon’[13] in reference to Lucky’s exploration of society, Lucky’s use of words such as ‘left unfinished’ ‘Shrink’ and ‘waste’ in which it contrasts the similar occurrence within Eliot’s poetry, this idea of society going to waste, it is no longer productive ‘Pressing lidless eyes and waiting for a knock upon the door’[14] underlining this as if they are just waiting for death to claim them. The repetition of these key words enforces this idea of a fragmented society, as well as providing a apparent complex structure for the speech. The use of rhyme within Lucky’s speech also provides us with some form of understanding and allows for the speech to flow more consistently. As such within the speech there is no punctuation, a key element when using the stream of consciousness technique. The style of communication itself is unfinished, with sentences trailing off as well as the fact the speech appears to be incoherent. ‘Quaquaquaquaqua with a white beard quaquaquaquaqua’[15] the fragmentation of the writing style allows Beckett to confront particular social and economic views of the time, whilst providing an opportunity to confound his audience and focus on language as a means of communication. Its context is an example of ‘The theatre of the absurd’, a movement that came about as a reaction to the Second World War. It took all logical and explainable things in art, music and literature and turned them into things that could no longer be explained, similarly to that in Luckys speech where Beckett uses unexplainable and fragmented sentences, words and phrases to shape Lucky’s dialogue. The theatre of the Absurd is one of the ways in which Beckett portrays the breakdown in communication in ‘Waiting for Godot’.
‘The Fire Sermon’ reflects the similarities to Lucky’s speech as they both contain references to places and authorities, both real and made up, . ‘Cunard’, “Testew’, ‘Wattmann’, ‘Peckham’, ‘Fulham’[16] are some examples of those in which he refers to, the places in which he sees, likewise Eliot uses both real and made up places within his poem. ‘Richmond’, ‘Moorgate’, ‘Lower Thames Street’[17] as if both are trying to provide some form of identity within their fragmented world.
Furthermore, Lucky’s reference to ‘Fire’ links both to Eliot’s poem, and Woolf’s characters Clarissa and Septimus in her novel ‘Mrs Dalloway’ Septimus who is suffering from the effects of world war I refers to the world as being destroyed by the flames ‘in a fire that can no longer be contained. Whether wonderful or deadly, the heat of the sun is constant, and something everyone must endure.’[18] Just like Septimus, Clarisa refers to the significance of fire when she describes romance. “A match burning in a crocus.”[19] As such the complexity of Lucky’s speech provides us with questions and answers as well as correlations and links between all three texts.
The structure of Eliot's poetry both represents this idea of being both fragmented and complex in numerous ways. Eliot's most famous poem ‘The Waste Land’ is divided into 5 very fragmented dramatic monologues, scripts of voices and historical quotations each building onto the other creating a very complex poem. The continuous change in writing style, language and imagery endorses this complexity. The use of different languages is a particular element that is seen both within ‘The Waste Land’ and ‘The love story of J. Alfred Prufrock’ both poems incorporate the use of English, as well as Latin, German and Italian. This combination of language not only works as a dramatic effect but also presents this idea of a breakdown of communication between the reader and writer. It also suggests our literary and linguistic understanding of where language itself developed from and perhaps suggests that the breakdown and fragmentation is evident in other European cultures. Communication, like loneliness is an area in which Eliot explores within his poetry in various ways. ‘The love story of J. Alfred Prufrock’ distorts this idea of writer and reader audience right from the beginning of the poem, his line ‘let us go then, you and I’[20] confuses the reader, leading us to question who exactly the ‘I’ is. Eliot's stream of consciousness technique makes us wonder whether Prufrock is speaking directly to the reader, another side of himself or whether its society fragmenting our relationship to him, thus endorsing this lack of communication.
Woolf also presents this breakdown in communication. The characters in ‘Mrs Dalloway’ also have trouble communicating with each other, and as such this lack of communication creates fragmentation within the novel as well as produces a barrier between social classes. In particular the lack of communication centres itself around Septimus and the individuals close to him. In suffering from paranoia and the effects of shell shock Septimus refuses to communicate with those around him. “If I confess… if I communicate… would they let me off then?”[21] His fear of his doctor is reflected in his speech and as such further underlines his paranoia.
Furthermore, Septimus lack of communication with his wife due to the language barrier underlines the breakdown in communication between characters ‘’Interrupted again! She was always interrupting’ [22]Just as Septimus’ thoughts are fragmented and distorted due to the interruption. “there he was sitting alone on a seat, in his shabby overcoat, his legs crossed, staring, talking aloud’’[23] Rezia goes to the doctor and states that Septimus is talking aloud and no longer to her and as a result people are beginning to notice his apparent ‘madness’ and beginning forming misconceptions about him as a person. ‘he seemed awfully odd, quarrelling perhaps, parting forever perhaps’[24] This too reflects Septimus’ behaviour when it comes to trusting others such as his wife and the doctor, his sudden outbursts towards others links with Eliot and his poem ‘Rhapsody on a windy night’ ‘The street-lamp sputtered. The street-lamp muttered’ [25]presents similarities between the object and character’s behaviour. Woolf’s apparent hatred for the medical profession echoes repeatedly when referring to Septimus’s so called condition. Her use of paraphrasing ‘’(who had nothing whatsoever seriously the matter with him, but was a little out of sorts’ )[26] underlines her mocking of those elements of society which reduces cooperation and the relationship between the characters, author and the society they both live in. Woolf’s frustration with the medical profession and its lack of support is reflected both in ‘Mrs Dalloway; as well as her life and as such the breakdown in communication is an important element in all three texts and is one of the notable key themes which links the two modernist texts and the post modernist text together. As such it provides a similarity between the three underlining the fragmented relationship between post and pre modernist writers.
The use of time is an element found within each text and as such each writer presents the use of time to portray both meaning and significance as each text takes place in a narrow time frame. In ‘Waiting for Godot’ it is clear from the beginning that both Vladimir and Estragon are waiting for an individual who will never turn up. The play takes place of a period of two days, similarly to that of ‘Mrs Dalloway’ which takes place over a day. In these two days both men occupy themselves in various ways as they wait for the arrival of ‘Godot’ their apparent ‘saviour’ Ironically Estragon frequently questions their reason for being there and often complains in the hope he can leave as if he has no hope of salvation.
‘ESTRAGON: (having tried in vain to work it out). I'm tired! (Pause.) Let's go!
VLADIMIR: We can't.
ESTRAGON: Why not?
VLADIMIR: We're waiting for Godot.’ [27]
There is a sense of bitter irony in the play, as if Estragon wants nothing more than to fit in, have a place in the world, and yet it is always appears to be just out of his reach. On numerous occasions the belief that Godot has finally arrived builds up the desperateness of their situation. The continuous repetition of Estragon’s questioning as to why there they are there becomes a refrain throughout the play.
‘VLADIMIR: (triumphantly). It's Godot! At last! Gogo! It's Godot! We're saved! Let's go and meet him!. ...
ESTRAGON: (louder). Do you see anything coming?
VLADIMIR: No.
ESTRAGON: Nor I. They resume their watch. Silence.’ [28]
When looking at ‘Waiting for Godot’ and its refection of time, it has as such often been referred to as a play in which ‘nothing happens’. Throughout the play both men make no progress either forwards or backwards in time, they are continuously stuck in the present. This too is experience by the audience; as Estragon and Vladimir wait so does the audience.
VLADIMIR: That passed the time.
ESTRAGON: It would have passed in any case.[29]
This is where dialogue becomes most important; the function of the dialogue in ‘Waiting for Godot’ is to mask the periods of silence within the play, whilst also preventing the characters from having to think. One thing Beckett does not underline is just how long these pauses should be. Particularly when looking at the play in performance the actors themselves choose how long they should wait before speaking again. Likewise both Vladimir and Estragon depend on each other to pass the time and as such their relationship is a complex one. Similar to that of the woman in Eliot’s ‘Portrait of a Lady’[30] both characters need each someone to be with, yet both admit that they are much happier by themselves. Furthermore it is clear that as well as relying on each other for entertainment purposes, they also need each other to help remind on another of their past, and their reason for being there. Throughout the play all the characters appear to have some form of forgetfulness. Pozzo, Estragon and the boy appear to not remember anything about their previous meetings with characters, and rely on Vladimir to enlighten them.
‘VLADIMIR: We met yesterday. (Silence) Do you not remember?
POZZO: I don't remember having met anyone yesterday. But to-morrow I won't remember having met anyone to-day. So don't count on me to enlighten you.’[31]
Beckett’s use of dialogue allows for time to pass without the characters truly noticing. The only notable tracking of time comes from the tree and the beginning of each act, the appearance of the leaves in Act 2, indentifies that they has been some progression.
Their only hope of a future is with Godot.
VLADIMIR: We are no longer alone, waiting for the night, waiting for Godot, waiting for . . . waiting All evening we have struggled, unassisted. Now it's over. It's already tomorrow.[32]
The novel ‘Mrs Dalloway’ is not divided into chapters, which is unusual; instead Woolf structures her novel with the use of the passage of time. As the novel progresses so do the hours in the day. The continuous reoccurrence of ‘Big Ben’ forms an elemental structure for the novel as well as an important theme. ‘Bells struck eleven times’.[33]
Both Clarissa and Septimus use the element of time to reflect their lives and how they have spent them. Clarissa’s continuous reflections back to her past underline this sense of regret and retribution. As other characters make an appearance during the novel, in particular Peter, Clarissa notes at just how fast time goes. “Leaden circles dissolved in the air.” [34]The fading out of Big Ben each hour underlines this eerie sort of feel to the novel. ‘Narrower and narrower her bed be’ [35]this belief that her life is getting shorter and shorter; the world is becoming constricted just like her life reflects her lack of feeling towards life anymore. ‘The icy claws had had the chance to fix in her’. [36] Furthermore it also illustrates the significant role which death plays within the novel. Throughout the novel there is an underlining reoccurring similarity between both Septimus and Clarissa in that they both have a sort of bond to what is coming, as if death has a hold on them both and there is no escape.
In following this one of the most notable elements of all three texts is the occurrence of both Religion and Death. It appears to the reader that in reading ‘Mrs Dalloway’ Woolf wanted to make a note of death, the fear of it, and just how quickly it can arrive. The death of Septimus towards the end of the novel seemingly echoes this fear particularly for Clarissa and possibly for that of Woolf. Having suffered from her own form of depression for many years before her eventual suicide in 1941, it is as if she herself was reflecting both her own personal suffering, and hatred for the medical profession on to Septimus. Additionally, throughout the novel Clarissa frequently makes references to certain ‘Shakespearean’ works, for example ‘Cymbeline’ [37]which refers to the idea of death begin embraced rather than feared, in the way Clarissa does. Eliot too uses Shakespeare references within some of his poems to illustrate certain emotions and themes, ‘The Waste Land: ii the burial of the dead’[38] accredits ‘The Tempest’[39] ‘’those are pearls that were his eyes’ [40] to emphasize the significance of death and how it is the one thing we will never be able to escape.
In ‘Waiting for Godot’ although Beckett does not refer to Death in context in the same way Woolf and Eliot do, it still could be perceived as a theme within the play. As the arrival of Godot becomes more and more unlikely, the passage of time increases and as such both Vladimir and Estragon come closer to their deaths.
ESTRAGON: Nothing to be done.
VLADMIR: I'm beginning to come round to that opinion.[41]
The play itself is about hope, and as such Godot is their hope, but without the arrival of Godot then there is almost a sense of hopelessness to the play.
BOY: (in a rush). Mr. Godot told me to tell you he won't come this evening but surely tomorrow.[42]
Eliot's early works such as ‘Rhapsody on a windy night’ ‘Prufrock’ and ‘Preludes’ we tend to see a lot of recurring imagery and themes. Eliot incorporates the concept of death, and old age a lot within his poems. ‘How his hair is growing thin’[43] and ‘I have seen the eternal footman hold my coat and snicker’[44] are just some examples of this relation to death. Whether this is a form of representation for his death or society it is unclear, it may even be that Eliot himself had a fear of death and decay, similar to the fear Woolf expressed and that it may have possibly arises from watching the death of his first wife Vivienne. Furthermore throughout his works Eliot makes reference to the ‘Eternal footmen’ the symbols of death, because death ‘snickers’ in such a way that it appears it is mocking the individuals, particularly men like Prufrock.
Additionally, The poem ‘The Hollow Men’[45] is also a poem that contains overlapping fragmented themes such as Eliot’s use of war imagery, this idea of the fear of death as being frantic and in short stating we have become ‘Hollow men’ having losing all sense of ourselves, no spirituality, with no hope just emptiness. This echoes the imagery in the poem ‘The Waste Land’ ‘pressing lidless eyes and waiting for a knock open the door’[46] instigates this same idea of this waiting for death. As such Eliot reflects the world in which he is writing about, London as he sees it post 1918.
In “Waiting for Godot’ the significance of ‘Godot’ who ever he may be, is that he is the central character within the play, even though we never actually meet him. There have been many interpretations as to who exactly Godot is. One of these interpretations is that ‘Beckett is believed to have said that the name Godot comes from the French "godillot" meaning a military boot.’[47] However one of the more modern interpretations is that Godot is stands for God’. Many have argued that this in fact is not true as Beckett himself was quoted stating "I also told [Ralph] Richardson that if by Godot I had meant God I would [have] said God, and not Godot. This seemed to disappoint him greatly’[48] nonetheless it could be possible to interpret Godot as God; the clues remain within the text.
‘VLADIMIR: (softly) Has he a beard, Mr. Godot?
BOY: Yes Sir.
VLADIMIR: Fair or . . . (he hesitates) . . . or black?
BOY: I think its white, Sir.
Silence.
VLADIMIR: Christ have mercy on us!’[49]
Interpretation of the above passage, indicates that possibly Vladimir too, made the connection between God and Godot, and as such it causes Vladimir to fear missing seeing Godot more or possibly that what is meant by ‘God’ is that which brings hope to people. Finally the fact Estragon shouts ‘Were saved’ numerous times within the play, when he honestly believes Godot has arrived underlines this idea that Godot is their saviour and therefore Godot is God.
VLADIMIR: But you can't go barefoot!
ESTRAGON: Christ did.
VLADIMIR: Christ! What has Christ got to do with it. You're not going to compare yourself to Christ!
ESTRAGON: All my life I've compared myself to him. [50]
Throughout ‘Waiting for Godot’ there are notable religious references which appear to mock religion and its uncertainly, a familiar characteristic was often associated with post modernist texts.
When looking at the dialogue between Vladimir and the Boy we see a religious stereotype overturned. The fact that the Boy, who tends the sheep, gets beaten whilst the Boy who tends the goats does not underlines the mockery, which exists within the play. Its clear Beckett wanted to confront religious views and bring awareness to his audience. Similarly in ‘Mrs Dalloway’ Woolf also expressed religious doubt. Written at a time when everything was open to scepticism, particularly that of the existence of God, ‘Mrs Dalloway’ is a novel which reflects the time in which it was written, with most modernist writers being agnostic, and Woolf herself a atheist, she projected her own particular views on religion onto Clarissa. “Had she ever tried to convert any one herself?”’ [51] This is demonstrated by the reaction of Clarissa to the character of Miss Kilman whose character symbolises the few remaining ‘true’ followers of religion. “She knows the meaning of life!” [52]and as such Miss Kilman thinks that Mrs Dalloway should do better things, less superficial than having parties, such as going to church or helping people.
In conclusion all three texts portray this idea that modernist works can be both fragmented and complex in such a way that it presents a dis-communication between the writer and reader audience, a distilled and changing society, and as well as allowing a form of religious exploration Overall modernist texts do present a link between the two and in so doing create a piece of literature that not only conveys a message or emotion but is also a reflection of the times in which they were written. .
Footnotes:
[1] http://famouspoetsandpoems.com/poets/t__s__eliot/quotes
[2] Penguin Classics 2003 ‘T.S Eliot ‘The Wasteland and other poems’
[3] Penguin Classics 2000 ‘Virginia Woolf – ‘Mrs Dalloway’
[4] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulysses_(novel)
[5] Faber and Faber 2006 Samuel Beckett ‘Waiting for Godot’
[6] http://www.samuel-beckett.net/BerlinTraffic.html P1 - L3
[7] Penguin Classics 2003 ‘T.S Eliot ‘The Wasteland and other poems’ ‘Rhapsody on a windy night’ Page 17
[8] Penguin Classics 2003 ‘T.S Eliot ‘The Wasteland and other poems’ ‘Preludes’ Page 14
[9] Penguin Classics 2003 ‘T.S Eliot ‘The Wasteland and other poems’ Rhapsody on a windy night’ Page 17 Line 43-45
[10] Penguin Classics 2003 ‘T.S Eliot ‘The Waste Land and other poems’ Rhapsody on a windy night’ Page 17 Line 5
[11] Penguin Classics 2003 ‘T.S Eliot ‘The Waste Land and other poems’ ‘Preludes’ Page 14 Line 12
[12] Faber and Faber 2006 Samuel Beckett ‘Waiting for Godot’ Page 36
[13] Penguin Classics 2003 ‘T.S Eliot ‘The Waste Land and other poems’ ‘The Waste Land: III The fire Sermon’ 61
[14] Penguin Classics 2003 ‘T.S Eliot ‘The Waste Land and other poems’ The Waste Land’ A Game of Chess’ page 57
[15] Faber and Faber 2006 Samuel Beckett ‘Waiting for Godot’ Page 36
[16] Faber and Faber 2006 Samuel Beckett ‘Waiting for Godot’ Page 36
[17] Penguin Classics 2003 ‘T.S Eliot ‘The Wasteland and other poems’ ‘The Wasteland: III The fire Sermon’ 61
[18] http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/dalloway/study.html#explanation1 P3 – L 11-13
[19] Penguin Classics 2000 ‘Virginia Woolf – ‘Mrs Dalloway’ Page 37
[20] Penguin Classics 2003 ‘T.S Eliot ‘The Wasteland and other poems’ ‘the Love Story of J.F Prufrock’ Page 1 Line 1
[21] Penguin Classics 2000 ‘Virginia Woolf – ‘Mrs Dalloway’ Page 37
[22] Penguin Classics 2000 ‘Virginia Woolf – ‘Mrs Dalloway’ Page 27
[23] Penguin Classics 2000 ‘Virginia Woolf – ‘Mrs Dalloway’ Page 28
[24] Penguin Classics 2000 ‘Virginia Woolf – ‘Mrs Dalloway’ Page 30
[25] Penguin Classics 2003 ‘T.S Eliot ‘The Wasteland and other poems’ Rhapsody on a windy night’ Page 17 Line 14-15
[26] Penguin Classics 2000 ‘Virginia Woolf – ‘Mrs Dalloway’ Page 25
[27] Faber and Faber 2006 Samuel Beckett ‘Waiting for Godot’ Act 2
[28] Faber and Faber 2006 Samuel Beckett ‘Waiting for Godot’ Act
[29] Faber and Faber 2006 Samuel Beckett ‘Waiting for Godot’ Act 1
[30] Penguin Classics 2003 ‘T.S Eliot ‘The Wasteland and other poems’ ‘Portrait of a Lady’ Page 9
[31] Faber and Faber 2006 Samuel Beckett ‘Waiting for Godot’ Act 2
[32] Faber and Faber 2006 Samuel Beckett ‘Waiting for Godot’ Act 2
[33] Penguin Classics 2000 ‘Virginia Woolf – ‘Mrs Dalloway’ Page 24
[34] Penguin Classics 2000 ‘Virginia Woolf – ‘Mrs Dalloway’
[35] Penguin Classics 2000 ‘Virginia Woolf – ‘Mrs Dalloway’
[36] Penguin Classics 2000 ‘Virginia Woolf – ‘Mrs Dalloway’
[37] William Shakespeare - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cymbeline
[38] Penguin Classics 2003 ‘T.S Eliot ‘The Wasteland and other poems’ ‘The wasteland: ii the burial of the dead’ Page 55
[39] William Shakespeare - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tempest
[40] Penguin Classics 2003 ‘T.S Eliot ‘The Wasteland and other poems’ ‘The wasteland: ii the burial of the dead’ Page 55
[41] Faber and Faber 2006 Samuel Beckett ‘Waiting for Godot’ Act 2
[42] Faber and Faber 2006 Samuel Beckett ‘Waiting for Godot’ Act 1
[43] Penguin Classics 2003 ‘T.S Eliot ‘The Wasteland and other poems’ The Love Song of J.F Prufrock’ Page 1 Line 41
[44] Penguin Classics 2003 ‘T.S Eliot ‘The Wasteland and other poems’ The Love Song of J.F Prufrock’ Page 1
[45] [45] Penguin Classics 2003 ‘T.S Eliot ‘The Wasteland and other poems’ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hollow_Men
[46] Penguin Classics 2003 ‘T.S Eliot ‘The Wasteland and other poems’’ ‘The Wasteland A Game of Chess’ Page 57
[47] http://www.gradesaver.com/waiting-for-godot/study-guide/section3/
[48] ^ SB to Barney Rosset, 18 October 1954 (Syracuse). Quoted in Knowlson, J., Damned to Fame: The Life of Samuel Beckett (London: Bloomsbury, 1996), p 412
[49] Faber and Faber 2006 Samuel Beckett ‘Waiting for Godot’ Act 1
[50] Faber and Faber 2006 Samuel Beckett ‘Waiting for Godot’ Act 1
[51] Penguin Classics 2000 ‘Virginia Woolf – ‘Mrs Dalloway’ http://spanishwithrocio.com/?page_id=104
[52] Penguin Classics 2000 ‘Virginia Woolf – ‘Mrs Dalloway’ http://spanishwithrocio.com/?page_id=104
How far does your interpretation of your three texts support this judgement?
‘’Any poet, if he is to survive beyond his 25th year, must alter; he must seek new literary influences; he will have different emotions to express.’’ [1] T.S Eliot born September 26, 1888 was considered to be one of the most important poets of the 20th century; he spent his life as a Poet, Playwright and literary critic and is responsible for having produced some of the most influential pieces of poetry known within the modernist movement, A movement which aimed to move away from romanticism, along with the ideological views of the world. The publication of T.S Eliot’s poem ‘The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock’[2] in 1915 saw the introduction of a new technique enter the works of Literature known as the ‘Stream of consciousness’, a literary style made famous during the 1920’s which provided fragmentation within those chosen Poems. Mrs Dalloway[3] written by modernist writer Virginia Woolf was the second novel alongside James Joyce’s ‘Ulysses’[4] to be recognized utilizing the use of this literary technique; in which it closely tracks the momentary thoughts of both Clarissa Dalloway and Septimus, the two main protagonists in the novel. The novel itself uses a combination of fragmented indirect and direct speech which plays an active role in formulating the flow of dialogue within the novel and as such creates a complex world, within a fragmented story.
The works of both Eliot and Woolf allowed for their modernist texts to reject the objective view inlayed in the works of its Victorian predecessors and move away from this idea of subjectivism. However the period was short lived, and eventually made way for post modernism, Samuel Beckett’s ‘Waiting for Godot’ [5], Written in 1948 having been entitled "the most significant English language play of the 20th century" [6] Beckett’s work moved away from the literary techniques of the modernist authors, and whilst some features were retained he evidently focused more on the use of language and structure as a way of distinguishing his work from those that preceded him.
The modernist style of both Eliot and Woolf similarly represent the social rebellion that existed just after World War I and as such illuminate this echoing feeling of war within their literary works, by rejecting romance and harmony, they portrayed this idea of a fragmentised society broken down by the effects of the war.
Similarly, ‘Waiting for Godot’ also echoes the feeling of war, having been written just after the end of World War II. It too projects the reminders of the war onto the narrative, keeping with the noted style of the post modernist writers whilst furthering the ability to diverge into areas previously unseen within Literature.
As a whole all three texts present the modernist view of a broken society through different forms. In particular Eliot portrays this idea of a fragmented society through a number of his poems. Works such as ‘Rhapsody on a windy night’[7] and ‘Preludes’[8] are clear examples of this, ‘Rhapsody’ illuminates this idea of a fragmented society, a society falling apart due to the changes that are occurring within it. ‘An old crab with barnacles on his back, Gripped the end of a stick which I held him’[9] portrays this image of society being old, it is crumbling away, yet it is still trying to hold on to itself with little hope. It also conveys this idea of loneliness; something that appears numerous times throughout his works. ‘Dissolve the floors of the memory’[10] and ‘A lonely cab-horse steams and stamps’[11] taken from ‘Preludes’ portrays this idea of our memories being forgotten, dissolved along with the remoteness of the animal underlines this echoing feeling of loneliness and isolation within his poetry.
Similarly this idea of a fragmented society and loneliness is something that presents itself within Beckett’s ‘Waiting for Godot’. Lucky’s speech which takes place towards the end of Act 1, is considered to be one the most memorable and famous elements of the play. As such the speech is a clear example of the use of the modernist technique the ‘stream of consciousness in action. Over the years there have been many debates as to what Beckett was trying to explore within Lucky’s speech and as such there has often been confusion as to what exactly Lucky was referring too.
LUCKY: ‘Time will tell... plunged in torment plunged in fire result of labours left unfinished to waste and pine to shrink and dwindle labours lost shrink and waste unfinished.’[12]
Notably there are links between Lucky speech and that of T.S Eliot’s ‘The Waste land: III The fire Sermon’[13] in reference to Lucky’s exploration of society, Lucky’s use of words such as ‘left unfinished’ ‘Shrink’ and ‘waste’ in which it contrasts the similar occurrence within Eliot’s poetry, this idea of society going to waste, it is no longer productive ‘Pressing lidless eyes and waiting for a knock upon the door’[14] underlining this as if they are just waiting for death to claim them. The repetition of these key words enforces this idea of a fragmented society, as well as providing a apparent complex structure for the speech. The use of rhyme within Lucky’s speech also provides us with some form of understanding and allows for the speech to flow more consistently. As such within the speech there is no punctuation, a key element when using the stream of consciousness technique. The style of communication itself is unfinished, with sentences trailing off as well as the fact the speech appears to be incoherent. ‘Quaquaquaquaqua with a white beard quaquaquaquaqua’[15] the fragmentation of the writing style allows Beckett to confront particular social and economic views of the time, whilst providing an opportunity to confound his audience and focus on language as a means of communication. Its context is an example of ‘The theatre of the absurd’, a movement that came about as a reaction to the Second World War. It took all logical and explainable things in art, music and literature and turned them into things that could no longer be explained, similarly to that in Luckys speech where Beckett uses unexplainable and fragmented sentences, words and phrases to shape Lucky’s dialogue. The theatre of the Absurd is one of the ways in which Beckett portrays the breakdown in communication in ‘Waiting for Godot’.
‘The Fire Sermon’ reflects the similarities to Lucky’s speech as they both contain references to places and authorities, both real and made up, . ‘Cunard’, “Testew’, ‘Wattmann’, ‘Peckham’, ‘Fulham’[16] are some examples of those in which he refers to, the places in which he sees, likewise Eliot uses both real and made up places within his poem. ‘Richmond’, ‘Moorgate’, ‘Lower Thames Street’[17] as if both are trying to provide some form of identity within their fragmented world.
Furthermore, Lucky’s reference to ‘Fire’ links both to Eliot’s poem, and Woolf’s characters Clarissa and Septimus in her novel ‘Mrs Dalloway’ Septimus who is suffering from the effects of world war I refers to the world as being destroyed by the flames ‘in a fire that can no longer be contained. Whether wonderful or deadly, the heat of the sun is constant, and something everyone must endure.’[18] Just like Septimus, Clarisa refers to the significance of fire when she describes romance. “A match burning in a crocus.”[19] As such the complexity of Lucky’s speech provides us with questions and answers as well as correlations and links between all three texts.
The structure of Eliot's poetry both represents this idea of being both fragmented and complex in numerous ways. Eliot's most famous poem ‘The Waste Land’ is divided into 5 very fragmented dramatic monologues, scripts of voices and historical quotations each building onto the other creating a very complex poem. The continuous change in writing style, language and imagery endorses this complexity. The use of different languages is a particular element that is seen both within ‘The Waste Land’ and ‘The love story of J. Alfred Prufrock’ both poems incorporate the use of English, as well as Latin, German and Italian. This combination of language not only works as a dramatic effect but also presents this idea of a breakdown of communication between the reader and writer. It also suggests our literary and linguistic understanding of where language itself developed from and perhaps suggests that the breakdown and fragmentation is evident in other European cultures. Communication, like loneliness is an area in which Eliot explores within his poetry in various ways. ‘The love story of J. Alfred Prufrock’ distorts this idea of writer and reader audience right from the beginning of the poem, his line ‘let us go then, you and I’[20] confuses the reader, leading us to question who exactly the ‘I’ is. Eliot's stream of consciousness technique makes us wonder whether Prufrock is speaking directly to the reader, another side of himself or whether its society fragmenting our relationship to him, thus endorsing this lack of communication.
Woolf also presents this breakdown in communication. The characters in ‘Mrs Dalloway’ also have trouble communicating with each other, and as such this lack of communication creates fragmentation within the novel as well as produces a barrier between social classes. In particular the lack of communication centres itself around Septimus and the individuals close to him. In suffering from paranoia and the effects of shell shock Septimus refuses to communicate with those around him. “If I confess… if I communicate… would they let me off then?”[21] His fear of his doctor is reflected in his speech and as such further underlines his paranoia.
Furthermore, Septimus lack of communication with his wife due to the language barrier underlines the breakdown in communication between characters ‘’Interrupted again! She was always interrupting’ [22]Just as Septimus’ thoughts are fragmented and distorted due to the interruption. “there he was sitting alone on a seat, in his shabby overcoat, his legs crossed, staring, talking aloud’’[23] Rezia goes to the doctor and states that Septimus is talking aloud and no longer to her and as a result people are beginning to notice his apparent ‘madness’ and beginning forming misconceptions about him as a person. ‘he seemed awfully odd, quarrelling perhaps, parting forever perhaps’[24] This too reflects Septimus’ behaviour when it comes to trusting others such as his wife and the doctor, his sudden outbursts towards others links with Eliot and his poem ‘Rhapsody on a windy night’ ‘The street-lamp sputtered. The street-lamp muttered’ [25]presents similarities between the object and character’s behaviour. Woolf’s apparent hatred for the medical profession echoes repeatedly when referring to Septimus’s so called condition. Her use of paraphrasing ‘’(who had nothing whatsoever seriously the matter with him, but was a little out of sorts’ )[26] underlines her mocking of those elements of society which reduces cooperation and the relationship between the characters, author and the society they both live in. Woolf’s frustration with the medical profession and its lack of support is reflected both in ‘Mrs Dalloway; as well as her life and as such the breakdown in communication is an important element in all three texts and is one of the notable key themes which links the two modernist texts and the post modernist text together. As such it provides a similarity between the three underlining the fragmented relationship between post and pre modernist writers.
The use of time is an element found within each text and as such each writer presents the use of time to portray both meaning and significance as each text takes place in a narrow time frame. In ‘Waiting for Godot’ it is clear from the beginning that both Vladimir and Estragon are waiting for an individual who will never turn up. The play takes place of a period of two days, similarly to that of ‘Mrs Dalloway’ which takes place over a day. In these two days both men occupy themselves in various ways as they wait for the arrival of ‘Godot’ their apparent ‘saviour’ Ironically Estragon frequently questions their reason for being there and often complains in the hope he can leave as if he has no hope of salvation.
‘ESTRAGON: (having tried in vain to work it out). I'm tired! (Pause.) Let's go!
VLADIMIR: We can't.
ESTRAGON: Why not?
VLADIMIR: We're waiting for Godot.’ [27]
There is a sense of bitter irony in the play, as if Estragon wants nothing more than to fit in, have a place in the world, and yet it is always appears to be just out of his reach. On numerous occasions the belief that Godot has finally arrived builds up the desperateness of their situation. The continuous repetition of Estragon’s questioning as to why there they are there becomes a refrain throughout the play.
‘VLADIMIR: (triumphantly). It's Godot! At last! Gogo! It's Godot! We're saved! Let's go and meet him!. ...
ESTRAGON: (louder). Do you see anything coming?
VLADIMIR: No.
ESTRAGON: Nor I. They resume their watch. Silence.’ [28]
When looking at ‘Waiting for Godot’ and its refection of time, it has as such often been referred to as a play in which ‘nothing happens’. Throughout the play both men make no progress either forwards or backwards in time, they are continuously stuck in the present. This too is experience by the audience; as Estragon and Vladimir wait so does the audience.
VLADIMIR: That passed the time.
ESTRAGON: It would have passed in any case.[29]
This is where dialogue becomes most important; the function of the dialogue in ‘Waiting for Godot’ is to mask the periods of silence within the play, whilst also preventing the characters from having to think. One thing Beckett does not underline is just how long these pauses should be. Particularly when looking at the play in performance the actors themselves choose how long they should wait before speaking again. Likewise both Vladimir and Estragon depend on each other to pass the time and as such their relationship is a complex one. Similar to that of the woman in Eliot’s ‘Portrait of a Lady’[30] both characters need each someone to be with, yet both admit that they are much happier by themselves. Furthermore it is clear that as well as relying on each other for entertainment purposes, they also need each other to help remind on another of their past, and their reason for being there. Throughout the play all the characters appear to have some form of forgetfulness. Pozzo, Estragon and the boy appear to not remember anything about their previous meetings with characters, and rely on Vladimir to enlighten them.
‘VLADIMIR: We met yesterday. (Silence) Do you not remember?
POZZO: I don't remember having met anyone yesterday. But to-morrow I won't remember having met anyone to-day. So don't count on me to enlighten you.’[31]
Beckett’s use of dialogue allows for time to pass without the characters truly noticing. The only notable tracking of time comes from the tree and the beginning of each act, the appearance of the leaves in Act 2, indentifies that they has been some progression.
Their only hope of a future is with Godot.
VLADIMIR: We are no longer alone, waiting for the night, waiting for Godot, waiting for . . . waiting All evening we have struggled, unassisted. Now it's over. It's already tomorrow.[32]
The novel ‘Mrs Dalloway’ is not divided into chapters, which is unusual; instead Woolf structures her novel with the use of the passage of time. As the novel progresses so do the hours in the day. The continuous reoccurrence of ‘Big Ben’ forms an elemental structure for the novel as well as an important theme. ‘Bells struck eleven times’.[33]
Both Clarissa and Septimus use the element of time to reflect their lives and how they have spent them. Clarissa’s continuous reflections back to her past underline this sense of regret and retribution. As other characters make an appearance during the novel, in particular Peter, Clarissa notes at just how fast time goes. “Leaden circles dissolved in the air.” [34]The fading out of Big Ben each hour underlines this eerie sort of feel to the novel. ‘Narrower and narrower her bed be’ [35]this belief that her life is getting shorter and shorter; the world is becoming constricted just like her life reflects her lack of feeling towards life anymore. ‘The icy claws had had the chance to fix in her’. [36] Furthermore it also illustrates the significant role which death plays within the novel. Throughout the novel there is an underlining reoccurring similarity between both Septimus and Clarissa in that they both have a sort of bond to what is coming, as if death has a hold on them both and there is no escape.
In following this one of the most notable elements of all three texts is the occurrence of both Religion and Death. It appears to the reader that in reading ‘Mrs Dalloway’ Woolf wanted to make a note of death, the fear of it, and just how quickly it can arrive. The death of Septimus towards the end of the novel seemingly echoes this fear particularly for Clarissa and possibly for that of Woolf. Having suffered from her own form of depression for many years before her eventual suicide in 1941, it is as if she herself was reflecting both her own personal suffering, and hatred for the medical profession on to Septimus. Additionally, throughout the novel Clarissa frequently makes references to certain ‘Shakespearean’ works, for example ‘Cymbeline’ [37]which refers to the idea of death begin embraced rather than feared, in the way Clarissa does. Eliot too uses Shakespeare references within some of his poems to illustrate certain emotions and themes, ‘The Waste Land: ii the burial of the dead’[38] accredits ‘The Tempest’[39] ‘’those are pearls that were his eyes’ [40] to emphasize the significance of death and how it is the one thing we will never be able to escape.
In ‘Waiting for Godot’ although Beckett does not refer to Death in context in the same way Woolf and Eliot do, it still could be perceived as a theme within the play. As the arrival of Godot becomes more and more unlikely, the passage of time increases and as such both Vladimir and Estragon come closer to their deaths.
ESTRAGON: Nothing to be done.
VLADMIR: I'm beginning to come round to that opinion.[41]
The play itself is about hope, and as such Godot is their hope, but without the arrival of Godot then there is almost a sense of hopelessness to the play.
BOY: (in a rush). Mr. Godot told me to tell you he won't come this evening but surely tomorrow.[42]
Eliot's early works such as ‘Rhapsody on a windy night’ ‘Prufrock’ and ‘Preludes’ we tend to see a lot of recurring imagery and themes. Eliot incorporates the concept of death, and old age a lot within his poems. ‘How his hair is growing thin’[43] and ‘I have seen the eternal footman hold my coat and snicker’[44] are just some examples of this relation to death. Whether this is a form of representation for his death or society it is unclear, it may even be that Eliot himself had a fear of death and decay, similar to the fear Woolf expressed and that it may have possibly arises from watching the death of his first wife Vivienne. Furthermore throughout his works Eliot makes reference to the ‘Eternal footmen’ the symbols of death, because death ‘snickers’ in such a way that it appears it is mocking the individuals, particularly men like Prufrock.
Additionally, The poem ‘The Hollow Men’[45] is also a poem that contains overlapping fragmented themes such as Eliot’s use of war imagery, this idea of the fear of death as being frantic and in short stating we have become ‘Hollow men’ having losing all sense of ourselves, no spirituality, with no hope just emptiness. This echoes the imagery in the poem ‘The Waste Land’ ‘pressing lidless eyes and waiting for a knock open the door’[46] instigates this same idea of this waiting for death. As such Eliot reflects the world in which he is writing about, London as he sees it post 1918.
In “Waiting for Godot’ the significance of ‘Godot’ who ever he may be, is that he is the central character within the play, even though we never actually meet him. There have been many interpretations as to who exactly Godot is. One of these interpretations is that ‘Beckett is believed to have said that the name Godot comes from the French "godillot" meaning a military boot.’[47] However one of the more modern interpretations is that Godot is stands for God’. Many have argued that this in fact is not true as Beckett himself was quoted stating "I also told [Ralph] Richardson that if by Godot I had meant God I would [have] said God, and not Godot. This seemed to disappoint him greatly’[48] nonetheless it could be possible to interpret Godot as God; the clues remain within the text.
‘VLADIMIR: (softly) Has he a beard, Mr. Godot?
BOY: Yes Sir.
VLADIMIR: Fair or . . . (he hesitates) . . . or black?
BOY: I think its white, Sir.
Silence.
VLADIMIR: Christ have mercy on us!’[49]
Interpretation of the above passage, indicates that possibly Vladimir too, made the connection between God and Godot, and as such it causes Vladimir to fear missing seeing Godot more or possibly that what is meant by ‘God’ is that which brings hope to people. Finally the fact Estragon shouts ‘Were saved’ numerous times within the play, when he honestly believes Godot has arrived underlines this idea that Godot is their saviour and therefore Godot is God.
VLADIMIR: But you can't go barefoot!
ESTRAGON: Christ did.
VLADIMIR: Christ! What has Christ got to do with it. You're not going to compare yourself to Christ!
ESTRAGON: All my life I've compared myself to him. [50]
Throughout ‘Waiting for Godot’ there are notable religious references which appear to mock religion and its uncertainly, a familiar characteristic was often associated with post modernist texts.
When looking at the dialogue between Vladimir and the Boy we see a religious stereotype overturned. The fact that the Boy, who tends the sheep, gets beaten whilst the Boy who tends the goats does not underlines the mockery, which exists within the play. Its clear Beckett wanted to confront religious views and bring awareness to his audience. Similarly in ‘Mrs Dalloway’ Woolf also expressed religious doubt. Written at a time when everything was open to scepticism, particularly that of the existence of God, ‘Mrs Dalloway’ is a novel which reflects the time in which it was written, with most modernist writers being agnostic, and Woolf herself a atheist, she projected her own particular views on religion onto Clarissa. “Had she ever tried to convert any one herself?”’ [51] This is demonstrated by the reaction of Clarissa to the character of Miss Kilman whose character symbolises the few remaining ‘true’ followers of religion. “She knows the meaning of life!” [52]and as such Miss Kilman thinks that Mrs Dalloway should do better things, less superficial than having parties, such as going to church or helping people.
In conclusion all three texts portray this idea that modernist works can be both fragmented and complex in such a way that it presents a dis-communication between the writer and reader audience, a distilled and changing society, and as well as allowing a form of religious exploration Overall modernist texts do present a link between the two and in so doing create a piece of literature that not only conveys a message or emotion but is also a reflection of the times in which they were written. .
Footnotes:
[1] http://famouspoetsandpoems.com/poets/t__s__eliot/quotes
[2] Penguin Classics 2003 ‘T.S Eliot ‘The Wasteland and other poems’
[3] Penguin Classics 2000 ‘Virginia Woolf – ‘Mrs Dalloway’
[4] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulysses_(novel)
[5] Faber and Faber 2006 Samuel Beckett ‘Waiting for Godot’
[6] http://www.samuel-beckett.net/BerlinTraffic.html P1 - L3
[7] Penguin Classics 2003 ‘T.S Eliot ‘The Wasteland and other poems’ ‘Rhapsody on a windy night’ Page 17
[8] Penguin Classics 2003 ‘T.S Eliot ‘The Wasteland and other poems’ ‘Preludes’ Page 14
[9] Penguin Classics 2003 ‘T.S Eliot ‘The Wasteland and other poems’ Rhapsody on a windy night’ Page 17 Line 43-45
[10] Penguin Classics 2003 ‘T.S Eliot ‘The Waste Land and other poems’ Rhapsody on a windy night’ Page 17 Line 5
[11] Penguin Classics 2003 ‘T.S Eliot ‘The Waste Land and other poems’ ‘Preludes’ Page 14 Line 12
[12] Faber and Faber 2006 Samuel Beckett ‘Waiting for Godot’ Page 36
[13] Penguin Classics 2003 ‘T.S Eliot ‘The Waste Land and other poems’ ‘The Waste Land: III The fire Sermon’ 61
[14] Penguin Classics 2003 ‘T.S Eliot ‘The Waste Land and other poems’ The Waste Land’ A Game of Chess’ page 57
[15] Faber and Faber 2006 Samuel Beckett ‘Waiting for Godot’ Page 36
[16] Faber and Faber 2006 Samuel Beckett ‘Waiting for Godot’ Page 36
[17] Penguin Classics 2003 ‘T.S Eliot ‘The Wasteland and other poems’ ‘The Wasteland: III The fire Sermon’ 61
[18] http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/dalloway/study.html#explanation1 P3 – L 11-13
[19] Penguin Classics 2000 ‘Virginia Woolf – ‘Mrs Dalloway’ Page 37
[20] Penguin Classics 2003 ‘T.S Eliot ‘The Wasteland and other poems’ ‘the Love Story of J.F Prufrock’ Page 1 Line 1
[21] Penguin Classics 2000 ‘Virginia Woolf – ‘Mrs Dalloway’ Page 37
[22] Penguin Classics 2000 ‘Virginia Woolf – ‘Mrs Dalloway’ Page 27
[23] Penguin Classics 2000 ‘Virginia Woolf – ‘Mrs Dalloway’ Page 28
[24] Penguin Classics 2000 ‘Virginia Woolf – ‘Mrs Dalloway’ Page 30
[25] Penguin Classics 2003 ‘T.S Eliot ‘The Wasteland and other poems’ Rhapsody on a windy night’ Page 17 Line 14-15
[26] Penguin Classics 2000 ‘Virginia Woolf – ‘Mrs Dalloway’ Page 25
[27] Faber and Faber 2006 Samuel Beckett ‘Waiting for Godot’ Act 2
[28] Faber and Faber 2006 Samuel Beckett ‘Waiting for Godot’ Act
[29] Faber and Faber 2006 Samuel Beckett ‘Waiting for Godot’ Act 1
[30] Penguin Classics 2003 ‘T.S Eliot ‘The Wasteland and other poems’ ‘Portrait of a Lady’ Page 9
[31] Faber and Faber 2006 Samuel Beckett ‘Waiting for Godot’ Act 2
[32] Faber and Faber 2006 Samuel Beckett ‘Waiting for Godot’ Act 2
[33] Penguin Classics 2000 ‘Virginia Woolf – ‘Mrs Dalloway’ Page 24
[34] Penguin Classics 2000 ‘Virginia Woolf – ‘Mrs Dalloway’
[35] Penguin Classics 2000 ‘Virginia Woolf – ‘Mrs Dalloway’
[36] Penguin Classics 2000 ‘Virginia Woolf – ‘Mrs Dalloway’
[37] William Shakespeare - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cymbeline
[38] Penguin Classics 2003 ‘T.S Eliot ‘The Wasteland and other poems’ ‘The wasteland: ii the burial of the dead’ Page 55
[39] William Shakespeare - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tempest
[40] Penguin Classics 2003 ‘T.S Eliot ‘The Wasteland and other poems’ ‘The wasteland: ii the burial of the dead’ Page 55
[41] Faber and Faber 2006 Samuel Beckett ‘Waiting for Godot’ Act 2
[42] Faber and Faber 2006 Samuel Beckett ‘Waiting for Godot’ Act 1
[43] Penguin Classics 2003 ‘T.S Eliot ‘The Wasteland and other poems’ The Love Song of J.F Prufrock’ Page 1 Line 41
[44] Penguin Classics 2003 ‘T.S Eliot ‘The Wasteland and other poems’ The Love Song of J.F Prufrock’ Page 1
[45] [45] Penguin Classics 2003 ‘T.S Eliot ‘The Wasteland and other poems’ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hollow_Men
[46] Penguin Classics 2003 ‘T.S Eliot ‘The Wasteland and other poems’’ ‘The Wasteland A Game of Chess’ Page 57
[47] http://www.gradesaver.com/waiting-for-godot/study-guide/section3/
[48] ^ SB to Barney Rosset, 18 October 1954 (Syracuse). Quoted in Knowlson, J., Damned to Fame: The Life of Samuel Beckett (London: Bloomsbury, 1996), p 412
[49] Faber and Faber 2006 Samuel Beckett ‘Waiting for Godot’ Act 1
[50] Faber and Faber 2006 Samuel Beckett ‘Waiting for Godot’ Act 1
[51] Penguin Classics 2000 ‘Virginia Woolf – ‘Mrs Dalloway’ http://spanishwithrocio.com/?page_id=104
[52] Penguin Classics 2000 ‘Virginia Woolf – ‘Mrs Dalloway’ http://spanishwithrocio.com/?page_id=104